MR. LEE DIV. 9

People with ADHD suffer from impulsivity, which means acting without thinking beforehand.

Generally, until people are in their early twenties, their decision making and responses take place in the limbic area--the "emotional brain." There is less inhibition and evaluation of consequences, but as they mature, they begin to respond with the frontal cortex--the "rational brain." 

However, individuals with ADHD respond primarily with their limbic area instead of their frontal cortex. So they act or react immediately, without thinking of the potential consequences. 

People with ADHD can work on skills and strategies of delaying gratification and evaluating consequences, as well as medication if necessary. 


Source: The Disorganized Mind, Nancy A. Ratey, 2008

Erratic working memory and a faulty attention system (impaired executive functions) leads to procrastination. Think of working memory like RAM in a computer; without enough RAM, the brain forgets what it was working on, and moves onto the next task at hand. 

People with ADHD also have the uncanny propensity to forget or suppress their goals or important activities they need to complete and instead spend time on trivial tasks, even when they know the consequences of failure in these more critical tasks.

Yet, people with ADHD also "benefit" from procrastination, though probably in somewhat unhealthy ways. When they reach a point of "do-or-die," then a couple of things happen: cortisol (stress response and stress hormone) and dopamine (neurotransmitter of attention system) activate in the body. Suddenly, the frontal cortex is "turned on" and RAM and executive functions begin to work normally. Then these individuals are able to focus their effort and attention on the task at hand. 

Therefore, as painful as procrastination can be, people with ADHD still feel they are able to pull a rabbit out of the hat at the last minute, which continues this cycle of procrastination. 

Source: The Disorganized Mind, Nancy A. Ratey, 2008

Learning takes effort. The harder it is (usually), the better you  remember and learn. A classic example is how many major tests are often structured: first, true and false; next, multiple-choice; then comes short answer; finally, there's the long-answer or essay question. The key is generation. If your choices are already there in front of you, as in the case of T/F or multiple-choice, there is very little effort and no generation of the solution. However, short- or long-answer questions require retrieval and memory pathways are strengthened as the problem is being worked out.

Another method in improving learning involves reflection. It only requires a few minutes of review after an experience or lesson. The cognitive activities involved are retrieval (recalling knowledge), elaboration (connecting new knowledge to previous), and generation (using own words to understand key concepts). 


Source: Make it stick: the science of successful learning, Brown, Roediger III, McDaniel, 2014
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It seems, after all, testing is good for student learning. Testing helps reduce forgetting, which is the nemesis of the retrieval and remembering of information and knowledge.

A real-life study at Columbia Middle School in Illinois in 2005 put promising lab results "to the test." Certain social studies classes were given quizzes on about a third of the material: one in the beginning of the class, one at the end of class, and one 24 hours before the unit exam. Clickers were used to answer multiple choice questions. Results: the students scored a full grade higher on material they were quizzed on compared to material not quizzed. 

Of course, tests that are more cognitively challenging, such as essays or short-answers, are more beneficial in learning, although recognition tests like multiple choice or true/false are still surprisingly useful. 

Rereading texts and cramming for exams are probably the two worst methods to learn and acquire information. 
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Interestingly, delaying feedback, especially in motor skills, such as sports, is more effective than immediate feedback. Immediate feedback is akin to "training wheels" that artificially support a rider far beyond their necessity. Let students use trial-and-error to make corrections, wait, and then give feedback. Delayed subsequent retrieval requires more effort, and more effort strengthens learning. 


​Source: Make it stick: the science of successful learning, Brown, Roediger III, McDaniel, 2014

According to an article in Psychology Today (May 11, 2010) by Art Markman, Ph.D, a paper talks about the production effect. People who read a list of words out loud remembered them much better than the words they read silently because they were creating the sounds.

Here's the interesting thing though: People who read all the words aloud remembered the same as those who read all of the words silently. Only the ones who read half aloud and half silently tested the highest. So what's going on?

The answer may lie in distinctiveness. We tend to remember things that stick out in our minds, the strange, unusual, different. So, the words that are spoken aloud are distinct from the silent ones, and thus remembered better. The words are both produced and heard. 

Application: Say the key information aloud while you are studying. Those should stay in your memory longer. 

Source: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, May 2010, MacLeod, Gopie, Hourihan, Neary, and Ozubko.

Executive functioning is defined as the "administrator and manager of a complex an busy system"--the brain. It helps students manage all types of tasks, such as organizing a trip, doing a project, or writing a report. It covers neurologically-based skills dealing with mental control and self-regulation. 

It is a symptom of many larger issues: attention-deficit/hyperactivity (AD/HD), learning disability (LD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), neurodevelopmental, psychiatric and medical disorders. 

Here are different types of executive function:

• inhibition: ability to stop one's behavior or thoughts at appropriate time
• shift: able to move easily from topic to topic and think flexibly
• emotional control: modulate emotional responses using rational thought
• initiation: able to being tasks and think of ideas or strategies
• working memory: capacity to hold information to complete a task
• planning/organization: manage current and future event needs
• organization of materials: items have a place
• self-monitoring: able to gauge own performance against a benchmark 

Source: Late, Lost, and Unprepared, Joyce Cooper-Kahn (Ph.D) & Laurie Dietzel (Ph.D), 2008

PERSONAL VS. SITUATIONAL

Pessimist: "I'm dumb."
Optimist: "That was a challenging test."

Pessimist: "I always get stuck with a weak partner."
Optimist: "I need to help my partner improve."

PERMANENT VS. SHORT-LIVED

Pessimist: "That team always beats us."
Optimist: "We are learning what it will take to beat them."

Pessimist: "I'll never figure out how to do math."
Optimist: "I'll need to spend extra time practicing these problems at home."

PERVASIVE VS. SPECIFIC

Pessimist: "There's no way I can find the time to do all of this. I have soccer practice tonight. My teacher gives me too much homework."

Optimist: "I'll have to use my time more wisely in class. If I spend 45 minutes a night studying, I can get my assignments completed."


Source: adapted from The Champion's Comeback, Jim Afremow, (2016)

Fixed: I can't execute this skill.
Growth: I'm going to devote more practice time to honing this skill.

Fixed: I am so embarrassed by this mistake.
Growth: I will learn from this mistake.

Fixed: I should be able to make changes quickly.
Growth: It takes time and effort to build winning habits.

Fixed: The other player (or team) is too good.
Growth: Playing against good players (or teams) is one of the best ways to improve my own performance.

Source: The Champion's Comeback, Jim Afremow (2016)

Graham Wallas, cofounder of the London School of Economics and author of The Art of Thought in 1926, came up with a formula, if you will, on how to come up with insights. He called these mental steps "stages of control."

The first step is preparation:  you spend hours, if not days, struggling, battling, banging your head against a way, trying to solve or figure out a problem. (Remember: if you give up too early, the second step may not be effective.)

The second step is incubation: you put the problem out of your mind; you literally walk away from it. Wallas figured that during this time, some "internal mental process" was taking place, reorganizing old and new information on a subconscious level. 

The third step is called illumination. This is when that lightbulb turns on above your head, and the answer is imminently apparent.

The final step is verification, checking to make sure the answer or results actually work.

Ultimately, it is the second step, incubation, that is the key to solving problems or discovering insights. So anytime you're really stuck on a problem, then it's time for incubation. What do you do for this time? 


(Source: How We Learn, Carey)

Erik Erikson, in his lifespan model of development, discusses the period from age 5 to 12, where children learn how to master new skills: academic, physical and social. When children master new skills, there are feelings of industry or competence. However, if children feel they are deficient relative to their peers, then feelings of inferiority and low self-esteem may develop. 

Therefore, we teachers must create opportunities and an environment or culture where all students can succeed on a daily basis in any or all of the three realms.